Etymology
Main article: Name of Iran
The name of Iran (ایران) is the Modern Persian derivative from the Proto-Iranian term Aryānā, meaning "Land of the Aryans", first attested in Zoroastrianism's Avesta tradition.[34][35][36][37] The term Ērān is found to refer to Iran in a 3rd-century Sassanid inscription, and the Parthian inscription that accompanies it uses the Parthian term "aryān" in reference to Iranians.[38]Historically Iran has been referred to as "Persia" or similar (La Perse, Persien, Perzië, etc.) by the Western world, mainly due to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis (Περσίς), meaning land of the Persians. In 1935 Rezā Shāh requested that the international community refer to the country as Iran. Opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and in 1959 both names were to be used interchangeably.[39] Today both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.[40]
The historical and cultural wider usage of "Iran" is not restricted to the modern state proper.[41][42][43] Irānshahr[44] or Irānzamīn (Greater Iran)[45] corresponded to territories of Iranian cultural or linguistic zones. Besides modern Iran, it included portions of the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, Eastern Arabia, the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia.
History
Main article: History of Iran
Early history in Iran
Further information: Archaeological sites in Iran, Proto-Elamite, Jiroft culture, Tepe Sialk, and Shahr-e Sukhteh
The earliest archaeological artifacts in Iran, like those excavated at the Kashafrud and Ganj Par sites, attest to a human presence in Iran since the Lower Paleolithic era.[46] Neanderthal artifacts dating back to the Middle Paleolithic period have been found mainly in the Zagros region at sites such as Warwasi and Yafteh Cave.[47][48][page needed] Early agricultural communities began to flourish in Iran at around 8000 BCE,[49][50] with settlements such as Chogha Bonut, Susa and Chogha Mish developing in the Zagros region.[51][page needed][52][53]The emergence of Susa as a city is determined by C14 dating as early as 4395 BCE.[54] There are dozens of pre-historic sites across the Iranian plateau pointing to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the fourth millennium BCE.[53][55][56] During the Bronze age Iran was home to several civilisations such as Elam, Jiroft and Zayandeh Rud civilisations. Elam, the most prominent of these civilisations developed in the southwest of Iran alongside those in Mesopotamia. The development of writing in Elam in fourth millennium BCE paralleled that in Sumer.[57] The Elamite kingdom continued its existence until the emergence of the Median and Achaemenid Empires.
Classical Era
Main articles: Median Empire, Achaemenid Empire, Seleucid Empire, Parthian Empire, and Sassanid Empire
During the second millennium BCE, Proto-Iranian tribes arrived in Iran from the Eurasian steppes,[59] rivaling the native settlers of the country.[60][61] As these tribes dispersed into the wider area of Greater Iran and beyond, the boundaries of modern Iran were dominated by the Persian, Parthian, and Median tribes. From the late 10th to late 7th centuries BCE, these Iranian peoples, together with the pre Iranian kingdoms, fell under the domination of the Assyrian Empire, based in northern Mesopotamia.[62] Under king Cyaxares, the Medes and Persians entered into an alliance with Nabopolassar of Babylon, as well as the Scythians, Cimmerians, and Arameans,
and together they attacked the Assyrian Empire. The civil war ravaged
Assyrian Empire between 616 BCE and 605 BCE, thus freeing their
respective peoples from three centuries of Assyrian rule.[62] The unification of the Median tribes under a single ruler in 728 BCE led to the creation of a Median empire which, by 612 BCE, controlled the whole of Iran as well as eastern Anatolia.[63]In 550 BCE, Cyrus the Great from the state of Anshan took over the Median empire, and founded the Achaemenid empire by unifying other city states. The conquest of Media was a result of what is called the Persian revolt; the brouhaha was initially triggered by the actions of the Median ruler Astyages and quickly spread to other provinces as they allied with the Persians. Later conquests under Cyrus and his successors expanded the empire to include Lydia, Babylon, Egypt, and the lands to the west of the Indus and Oxus rivers. At its greatest extent, the empire included the modern territories of Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, all significant population centers of ancient Egypt as far west as Libya, Turkey, Thrace and Macedonia, much of the Black Sea coastal regions, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, much of Central Asia, Afghanistan, northern Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and parts of Oman and the UAE, making it the first world empire.[64][65] Conflict on the western borders began with the famous Greco-Persian Wars which continued through the first half of the 5th century BCE and ended with the Persian withdrawal from all of their European territories.[66] The empire had a centralised, bureaucratic administration under the Emperor and a large professional army and civil services, inspiring similar developments in later empires.[67]
Middle Ages (652–1501)
Main articles: Islamic conquest of Iran and Medieval Iran
The prolonged Roman-Persian wars, as well as social conflict within the Empire opened the way for an Islamic invasion of Iran in the 7th century.[70][71] Gundeshapur was the most important medical centre of the ancient world at the time of the Islamic conquest.[72] Initially defeated by the Rashidun Caliphate, Iran later came under the rule of their successors the Ummayad and Abbasid Caliphates. The process of conversion of Iranians to Islam which followed was prolonged and gradual. Under the new Arab elite of the Rashidun and later Ummayad Caliphates Iranians, both Muslim (mawali) and non-Muslim (Dhimmi), were discriminated against, being excluded from government and military, and having to pay a special tax.[73][74] In 750 the Abbasids succeeded in overthrowing the Ummayad Caliphate, mainly due to the support from dissatisfied Iranian mawali.[75] The mawali formed the majority of the rebel army, which was led by the Iranian general Abu Muslim.[76][77][78] After two centuries of Arab rule semi-independent and independent Iranian kingdoms (such as the Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanids and Buyids) began to appear on the fringes of the declining Abbasid Caliphate. By the Samanid era in the 9th and 10th centuries Iran's efforts to regain its independence had been well solidified.[79]
The cultural revival that began in the Abbasid period led to a resurfacing of Iranian national identity, and so earlier attempts of Arabization never succeeded in Iran. The Iranian Shuubiyah movement became a catalyst for Iranians to regain their independence in their relations with the Arab invaders.[83] The most notable effect of the movement was the continuation of the Persian language attested to the epic poet Ferdowsi, now regarded as the most important figure in Persian literature.
The 10th century saw a mass migration of Turkic tribes from Central Asia into the Iranian plateau.[84] Turkic tribesmen were first used in the Abbasid army as slave-warriors (Mamluks), replacing Persian and Arab elements within the army.[76] As a result the Mamluks gained significant political power. In 999, Iran came under the rule of Ghaznavid dynasty, whose rulers were of Mamluk Turk origin, and later under the Turkish Seljuk and Khwarezmian Empires. These Turks had been Persianised and had adopted Persian models of administration and rulership.[84] The result of the adoption and patronage of Persian culture by Turkish rulers was the development of a distinct Turko-Persian tradition.
In 1219–21 the Khwarezmian Empire suffered a devastating invasion by Genghis Khan's Mongol army. Mongol violence and depredations killed up to three-fourths of the population of the Iranian Plateau, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Some historians have estimated that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the mid-20th century.[85] Following the fracture of the Mongol Empire in 1256 Hulagu Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson, established the Ilkhanate dynasty in Iran. In 1370 yet another conqueror, Timur, commonly known as Tamerlane in the West, followed Hulagu's example, establishing the Timurid Dynasty which lasted for another 156 years. In 1387, Timur ordered the complete massacre of Isfahan, reportedly killing 70,000 citizens.[86] Hulagu, Timur and their successors soon came to adopt the ways and customs of the Persians, choosing to surround themselves with a culture that was distinctively Persian.[87]
Dynasties (1501–1979)
In 1729, a Khorasan chieftain, Nader Shah, successfully drove out, then conquered the Pashtun invaders. In 1738-9 he invaded India and sacked Delhi. Following a brief period of civil war and turmoil, sparked by Nader Shah's assassination, Karim Khan came to power in 1750, bringing a period of relative peace and prosperity.[85] Another civil war ensued after Karim Khan's death in 1779, out of which Aga Muhammad Khan emerged victorious, founding the Qajar Dynasty in 1794. Qajar rule is characterised as a century of misrule.[84] The Great Persian Famine of 1870–1871 is believed to have caused the death of 1.5 million persons, or 20–25% of Persia's population.[89]
In 1921 Reza Khan, Prime Minister of Iran and former general of the Persian Cossack Brigade, overthrew the Qajar Dynasty and became Shah. In 1941 he was forced to abdicate in favour of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, after Iran came under British and Russian occupation following the Anglo-Soviet invasion that established the Persian Corridor and would last until 1946.
In 1951 Mohammad Mosaddegh was elected prime minister. He became enormously popular in Iran after he nationalized Iran's petroleum industry and oil reserves. He was deposed in the 1953 Iranian coup d'état, an Anglo-American covert operation that marked the first time the US had overthrown a foreign government during the Cold War.[91]
After the coup, the Shah became increasingly autocratic. Arbitrary arrests and torture by his secret police, SAVAK, were used to crush all forms of political opposition. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini became an active critic of the Shah's White Revolution and publicly denounced the government. Khomeini was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964, Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. The Shah sent him into exile. He went first to Turkey, then to Iraq and finally to France. By the mid-1970s, there was growing unrest with the Shah's repressive regime.
Islamic Republic (1979–)
See also: Iranian Revolution and History of the Islamic Republic of Iran
A referendum in December 1979 approved a theocratic constitution.[96] Although both nationalists and Marxists joined with Islamic traditionalists to overthrow the Shah, tens of thousands were executed by the Islamic regime afterward.[97] On 4 November 1979, a group of Iranian students seized US embassy personnel[98] after the US refused to return Mohammad Reza Pahlavi to Iran to face trial. He was in hospital in Texas at the time. Attempts by the Jimmy Carter administration to negotiate for their release or rescue them were unsuccessful. In January 1981 the hostages were finally set free according to the Algiers Accords.
In 1987, Iran tried to close the Persian Gulf to stop the flow of Iraqi, Kuwaiti and Saudi oil, as a way to strangle Iraq, with which it had been fighting a bloody war for almost seven years. On October 15 and 16, Iran attacked two Kuwaiti-owned but US flagged supertankers with Silkworm missiles.[99][100] The US responded with Operation Nimble Archer on October 19, 1987 by attacking two Iranian oil platforms in the Persian Gulf with United States Naval forces. Iran subsequently filed an unsuccessful lawsuit against the United States for reparations at the International Court of Justice.
The war continued until 1988, when Khomeini accepted a truce mediated by the UN. The total Iranian casualties in the war were estimated to be between 500,000 and 1,000,000.[101] An estimated 95,000 Iranian child soldiers were killed during the Iran–Iraq War.[102]
Following the Iran–Iraq War, President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and his administration concentrated on a pragmatic pro-business policy of rebuilding and strengthening the economy without making any dramatic break with the ideology of the revolution. Rafsanjani served until 1997. Rafsanjani was succeeded by the moderate reformist Mohammad Khatami. However, Khatami is widely regarded as having been unsuccessful in achieving his goal of making Iran more free and democratic.[103]
In the 2005 presidential elections the conservative populist candidate Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was elected.[104] In the 2009 Iranian presidential election the Interior Ministry announced incumbent president Ahmadinejad had won 62.63% of the vote, while Mir-Hossein Mousavi had come in second place with 33.75%.[105][106] Allegations of large irregularities provoked the 2009–2010 Iranian election protests both within Iran and in major capitals in the West.[107]
Hassan Rouhani was elected as President of Iran on 15 June 2013, defeating Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf and four other candidates.[108][109] The electoral victory of Hassan Rouhani has improved Iran's relations with other countries.[110]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Iran
See also: Agriculture in Iran and Wildlife of Iran
The northern part of Iran is covered by dense rain forests called Shomal or the Jungles of Iran. The eastern part consists mostly of desert basins such as the Dasht-e Kavir, Iran's largest desert, in the north-central portion of the country, and the Dasht-e Lut, in the east, as well as some salt lakes. This is because the mountain ranges are too high for rain clouds to reach these regions. The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab (or the Arvand Rūd) river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz and the Gulf of Oman.
Climate
See also: Environment of Iran
Iran's climate ranges from arid or semiarid, to subtropical along the Caspian coast and the northern forests.
On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain)
temperatures rarely fall below freezing and the area remains humid for
the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C (84.2 °F).[114][115] Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26.8 in) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (66.9 in) in the western part.
To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters with below zero average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (7.9 in) of rain, and have occasional deserts.[115] Average summer temperatures exceed 38 °C (100.4 °F). The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (5.3 to 14.0 in).[115]
Fauna
See also: Wildlife in Iran
Iran's wildlife is composed of several animal species including bears, gazelles, wild pigs, wolves, jackals, panthers, Eurasian Lynx,
and foxes. Domestic animals include, sheep, goats, cattle, horses,
water buffalo, donkeys, and camels. The pheasant, partridge, stork,
eagles and falcon are also native to Iran.
One of the most famous members of Iranian wildlife is the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah, also known as the Iranian Cheetah, whose numbers were greatly reduced after the Iranian Revolution. Today there are ongoing efforts to increase its population and introduce it back in India. Iran had lost all its Asiatic Lion and the now extinct Caspian Tigers by the earlier part of the 20th century.[116]
Provinces and cities
Main articles: Provinces of Iran and Counties of Iran
See also: List of Iranian cities by population
Iran has one of the highest urban growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002, the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.[117] The United Nations predicts that by 2030, 80% of the population will be urban.[118][not in citation given] Most internal migrants have settled near the cities of Tehran, Isfahan, Ahvaz, and Qom. The listed populations are from the 2006/07 (1385 AP) census.[119][not in citation given] Tehran, with a population of 7,705,036, is the largest city in Iran and is the capital. Tehran, like many big cities, suffers from severe air pollution. It is the hub of the country's communication and transport network.
Mashhad, with a population of 2,410,800, is the second largest Iranian city and the centre of the Razavi Khorasan Province. Mashhad is one of the holiest Shia cities in the world as it is the site of the Imam Reza shrine. It is the centre of tourism in Iran, and between 15 and 20 million pilgrims go to the Imam Reza's shrine every year.[120][121]
Another major Iranian city is Isfahan (population 1,583,609), which is the capital of Isfahan Province. The Naqsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. The city contains a wide variety of Islamic architectural sites ranging from the 11th to the 19th century. The growth of the suburban area around the city has turned Isfahan into Iran's second most populous metropolitan area (3,430,353).[122]
The fourth major city of Iran is Tabriz (population 1,378,935), the capital of the East Azerbaijan Province. It is also the second industrial city of Iran after Tehran. Tabriz had been the second largest city in Iran until the late 1960s and one of its former capitals and residence of the crown prince under the Qajar dynasty. The city has proven extremely influential in the country’s recent history.
The fifth major city is Karaj (population 1,377,450), located in Alborz Province and situated 20 km west of Tehran, at the foot of the Alborz mountains; however, the city is increasingly becoming an extension of metropolitan Tehran.
The sixth major Iranian city is Shiraz (population 1,214,808); it is the capital of Fars Province. The Elamite civilization to the west greatly influenced the area, which soon came to be known as Persis. The ancient Persians were present in the region from about the 9th century BCE, and became rulers of a large empire under the Achaemenid dynasty in the 6th century BCE. The ruins of Persepolis and Pasargadae, two of the four capitals of the Achaemenid Empire, are located in or near Shiraz. Persepolis was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire and is situated 70 kilometres (43 mi) northeast of modern Shiraz. UNESCO declared the citadel of Persepolis a World Heritage Site in 1979.
|
Largest cities or towns of Iran Statistical Center of Iran: Results of national census, 2012[123] |
|||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||
 Tehran  Mashhad |
1 | Tehran | Tehran | 8,154,051 | 11 | Rasht | Gilan | 639,951 |  Isfahan  Karaj |
| 2 | Mashhad | Razavi Khorasan | 2,749,374 | 12 | Zahedan | Sistan and Baluchestan | 560,725 | ||
| 3 | Isfahan | Isfahan | 1,756,126 | 13 | Kerman | Kerman | 534,441 | ||
| 4 | Karaj | Alborz | 1,614,626 | 14 | Arak | Markazi | 526,182 | ||
| 5 | Tabriz | East Azarbaijan | 1,494,988 | 15 | Hamadan | Hamadan | 525,794 | ||
| 6 | Shiraz | Fars | 1,460,665 | 16 | Yazd | Yazd | 486,152 | ||
| 7 | Ahwaz | Khuzestan | 1,112,021 | 17 | Ardabil | Ardabil | 482,632 | ||
| 8 | Qom | Qom | 1,074,036 | 18 | Bandar Abbas | Hormozgan | 435,751 | ||
| 9 | Kermanshah | Kermanshah | 851,405 | 19 | Eslamshahr | Tehran | 389,102 | ||
| 10 | Urmia | West Azarbaijan | 667,499 | 20 | Zanjan | Zanjan | 386,851 | ||
Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Iran
After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the President of Iran as the highest state authority.[124][126] The President is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years and can only be re-elected for one term.[126][dubious ] Presidential candidates must be approved by the Guardian Council prior to running in order to ensure their allegiance to the ideals of the Islamic revolution.[127]
The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters.[124] The President appoints and supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature.[128] Eight Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty two ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature.[129]
The legislature of Iran (known in English as the Islamic Consultative Assembly) is a unicameral body.[130] The Majlis of Iran comprises 290 members elected for four-year terms.[130] The Majlis drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council.[131]
The Guardian Council comprises twelve jurists including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. The others are elected by the Parliament from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the Judiciary.[132][133] The Council interprets the constitution and may veto Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law), it is referred back to Parliament for revision.[126] The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Guardian Council, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.[134] Local city councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran.
Law
Main article: Judicial system of Iran
The Supreme Leader appoints the head of Iran's judiciary, who in turn
appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor.[135] There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and revolutionary courts which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed.[135] The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving lay people.
The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular
judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The
Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.[135]
The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises
86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for
eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections,
the Guardian Council determines candidates' eligibility.[135]
The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional
authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time.[135] It has not challenged any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.[135]Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Iran
Military
Main articles: Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran and Defense industry of Iran
Since the Iranian Revolution, to overcome foreign embargo, Iran has developed its own military industry, produced its own tanks, armored personnel carriers, guided missiles, submarines, military vessels, guided missile destroyer, radar systems, helicopters and fighter planes.[144][145][146] In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as the Hoot, Kowsar, Zelzal, Fateh-110, Shahab-3 and Sejjil missiles, and a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).[147] The Fajr-3 (MIRV) is currently Iran's most advanced ballistic missile, it is a liquid fuel missile with an undisclosed range which was developed and produced domestically.
Economy
Main article: Economy of Iran
See also: Iranian subsidy reform plan and Tehran Stock Exchange
In 2006, about 45% of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31% came from taxes and fees.[154] As of 2007, Iran had earned $70 billion in foreign exchange reserves mostly (80%) from crude oil exports.[155] Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, mostly due to large-scale state subsidies, that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline, totaling more than $84 billion in 2008 for the energy sector alone.[156][157] In 2010, the economic reform plan was approved by parliament to cut subsidies gradually and replace them with targeted social assistance. The objective is to move towards free market prices in a 5-year period and increase productivity and social justice.[158]
The administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. Iran has also developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceuticals industry.[159] However, nationalized industries such as the bonyads have often been managed badly, making them ineffective and uncompetitive with years. Currently, the government is trying to privatize these industries, and, despite successes, there are still several problems to be overcome, such as the lagging corruption in the public sector and lack of competitiveness. In 2010, Iran was ranked 69, out of 139 nations, in the Global Competitiveness Report.[160]
Iran has leading manufacturing industries in the fields of car-manufacture and transportation, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology, power and petrochemicals in the Middle East.[161]
Economic sanctions against Iran, such as the embargo against Iranian crude oil, have affected the economy.[162] Sanctions have led to a steep fall in the value of the rial, and as of April 2013 one US dollar is worth 36,000 rial, compared with 16,000 in early 2012.[163]
About 1,659,000 foreign tourists visited Iran in 2004; most came from Asian countries, including the republics of Central Asia, while a small share came from the countries of the European Union and North America. Iran currently ranks 89th in tourist income, but is rated among the "10 most touristic countries" in the world in terms of its historical sites.[164][165] Weak advertising, unstable regional conditions, a poor public image in some parts of the world, and absence of efficient planning schemes in the tourism sector have all hindered the growth of tourism.
Energy
In 2004, a large share of natural gas reserves in Iran were untapped. The addition of new hydroelectric stations and the streamlining of conventional coal and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts. Of that amount, about 75% was based on natural gas, 18% on oil, and 7% on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the first solar thermal plant is to come online in 2009. Iran is the third country in the world to have developed GTL technology.[171]
Demographic trends and intensified industrialization have caused electric power demand to grow by 8% per year. The government’s goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants and by adding hydroelectric, and nuclear power generating capacity. Iran’s first nuclear power plant at Bushehr went online in 2011.[172][173]
Education and science
Education in Iran is highly centralized. K-12 education is supervised by the Ministry of Education and higher education is under supervision of Ministry of Science and Technology. The adult literacy rate in 2008 was 85.0%, up from 36.5% in 1976.[174]Higher education is sanctioned by different levels of diplomas: Fogh-e-Diplom or Kārdāni after 2 years of higher education, Kārshenāsi (also known under the name “licence”) is delivered after 4 years of higher education (Bachelor's degree). Kārshenāsi-ye Arshad is delivered after 2 more years of study (Master's degree). After which, another exam allows the candidate to pursue a doctoral program (PhD).[175]
According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are the University of Tehran (468th worldwide), the Tehran University of Medical Sciences (612th) and Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (815th).[176]
Iran has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate followed by China.[177] According to SCImago, Iran could rank fourth in the world in terms of research output by 2018.[178]
In the biomedical sciences, Iran's Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics is a UNESCO chair in biology.[181] In late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the Rouyan research centre in Tehran.[182] According to a study by David Morrison and Ali Khademhosseini (Harvard-MIT and Cambridge), stem cell research in Iran is amongst the top 10 in the world.[183] Iran ranks 15th in the world in nanotechnologies.[184][185][186]
Iran placed its domestically built satellite, Omid into orbit on the 30th anniversary of the Iranian Revolution, on 2 February 2009,[187] through Safir rocket, becoming the ninth country in the world capable of both producing a satellite and sending it into space from a domestically made launcher.[188]
The Iranian nuclear program was launched in the 1950s. Iran is the 7th country in production of uranium hexafluoride and controls the entire nuclear fuel cycle.[189][190]
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Iran and Iranian peoples
See also: Healthcare in Iran
Iran's population grew rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century, increasing from about 19 million in 1956 to around 75 million by 2009.[192][193] However, Iran's birth rate has dropped significantly in recent years, leading to a population growth rate—recorded from July 2012—of about 1.29 percent.[194] Studies project that Iran's rate of growth will continue to slow until it stabilizes above 105 million by 2050.[195][196]
Iran hosts one of the largest refugee populations in the world, with more than one million refugees, mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq.[197] Since 2006, Iranian officials have been working with the UNHCR and Afghan officials for their repatriation.[198] According to estimates, about five million Iranian citizens have emigrated to other countries, mostly since the Iranian Revolution in 1979.[199][200]
According to the Iranian Constitution, the government is required to provide every citizen of the country with access to social security that covers retirement, unemployment, old age, disability, accidents, calamities, health and medical treatment and care services. This is covered by tax revenues and income derived from public contributions. According to the World Health Organization, Iran ranked 58 in national health metrics and 93 in the overall performance of its healthcare system in 2000.[201]
Languages
Main article: Languages of Iran
Ethnic groups
Main article: Ethnicities in Iran
The Library of Congress issued slightly different estimates: Persians (65%), Azerbaijanis (16%), Kurds (7%), Lurs (6%), Arabs (2%), Baluchi (2%), Turkmens (1%), Turkic tribal groups such as the Qashqai (1%), and non-Iranian, non-Turkic groups such as Armenians, Assyrians and Georgians (less than 1%). It determined that Persian is language of at least 65% of the Iran population and also as the second language for most of the remaining 35% Iranians.[202]
Religion
Main article: Religion in Iran
The latter three minority religions are officially recognized and protected, and have reserved seats in the Parliament (Majlis) . However the Bahá'í Faith, Iran's largest religious minority,[205] is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran since the 19th century. Since the 1979 revolution the persecution of Bahá'ís has increased with executions, the denial of civil rights and liberties, and the denial of access to higher education and employment.[206][207][208] The government has not released statistics regarding the irreligious.
Culture
Main article: Culture of Iran
Humanities
The Sassanid era was an important and influential historical period in Iran as Iranian culture influenced China, India and Roman civilization considerably,[209] and so influenced as far as Western Europe and Africa.[210] This influence played a prominent role in the formation of both Asiatic and European medieval art.[211] This influence carried forward to the Islamic world. Much of what later became known as Islamic learning, such as philology, literature, jurisprudence, philosophy, medicine, architecture and the sciences were based on some of the practises taken from the Sassanid Persians to the broader Muslim world.[212][213][214] Daily life in modern Iran is closely interwoven with Shia Islam and the country's art, literature, and architecture are an ever-present reminder of its deep national tradition and of a broader literary culture.[214][215]The state-owned Telecommunication Company of Iran handles telecommunications. The media of Iran is a mixture of private and state-owned, but books and movies must be approved by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance before being released to the public. Iran originally received access to the internet in 1993,[citation needed] and it has become enormously popular among the Iranian youth. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of bloggers.[216]
Interpersonal relations and observances
See also: Iranian calendar
Persian culture has long been a predominant culture of the region,
with Persian considered the language of intellectuals during much of the
2nd millennium, and the language of religion and the populace before
that. The Iranian New Year (Nowruz) is an ancient tradition celebrated on 21 March to mark the beginning of spring in Iran. Nowruz was registered on the list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity[217] and described as the Persian New Year[218][219][220][221] by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 2009. A form of marriage that has been practised for long periods of Persian history, and is legal today is mut'ah, a type of marriage that is frowned upon by some due to its promiscuous nature.[222]Arts and literature
Main articles: Iranian architecture and Iranian art
Iran ranks seventh among countries in the world with the most archeological architectural ruins and attractions from antiquity as recognized by UNESCO.[223] Fifteen of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites are creations of Iranian architecture.
Poetry is used in many Persian classical works, whether from literature, science, or metaphysics. Persian literature has been considered by such thinkers as Goethe as one of the four main bodies of world literature.[224] The Persian language has produced a number of famous poets; however, only a few poets as Rumi and Omar Khayyám have surfaced among western popular readership, even though the likes of Hafiz, Saadi, Nizami,[225] Attar, Sanai, Nasir Khusraw and Jami are considered by many Iranians to be just as influential.
Popular culture and cinema
The musical culture of Persia, while distinct, is closely related to other musical systems of the West and Central Asia. It has also affinities to the music cultures of the Indian subcontinent, to a certain degree even to those of Africa, and, in the period after 1850 particularly, to that of Europe. Its history can be traced to some extent through these relationships. Like that of most of the world’s cultures, the music of Persia has depended on oral/aural transmission and learning.[226]Iranian cinema has thrived in modern Iran, and many Iranian directors have garnered worldwide recognition for their work. Iranian movies have won over three hundred awards in the past twenty-five years including Oscars. One of the best-known directors is Abbas Kiarostami.
Cuisine
Main article: Iranian cuisine
Sports
Main article: Sport in Iran
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