Reports Of Tension Between U.S., China In South China Sea
Reports Of Tension Between U.S., China In South China Sea
Reports Of Tension Between U.S., China In South China Sea
Etymology
Main article: Names of China
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The official name of the present country is the People's Republic of China (Chinese: 中华人民共和国; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó). The common Chinese names for the country are Zhōngguó (Chinese: 中国, from zhōng, "central" or "middle", and guó, "state" or "states," and in modern times, "nation") and Zhōnghuá (Chinese: 中华), although the country's official name has been changed numerous times by successive dynasties and modern governments. The term Zhōngguó appeared in various ancient texts, such as the Classic of History of the 6th century BCE,[j] and in pre-imperial times it was often used as a cultural concept to distinguish the Huaxia tribes from perceived "barbarians". The term, which can be either singular or plural, referred to the group of states or provinces in the central plain, but was not used as a name for the country as a whole until the nineteenth century. The Chinese were not unique in regarding their country as "central", with other civilizations having the same view of themselves.[30]
History
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| ANCIENT | |||||||
| Prehistory c. 7000–c. 2100 BCE | |||||||
| Xia dynasty c. 2100–c. 1600 BCE | |||||||
| Shang dynasty c. 1600–c. 1046 BCE | |||||||
| Zhou dynasty c. 1045–256 BCE | |||||||
| Western Zhou | |||||||
| Eastern Zhou | |||||||
| Spring and Autumn | |||||||
| Warring States | |||||||
| IMPERIAL | |||||||
| Qin dynasty 221–206 BCE | |||||||
| Han dynasty 206 BCE – 220 CE | |||||||
| Western Han | |||||||
| Xin dynasty | |||||||
| Eastern Han | |||||||
| Three Kingdoms 220–280 | |||||||
| Wei, Shu and Wu | |||||||
| Jin dynasty 265–420 | |||||||
| Western Jin | 16 Kingdoms 304–439 |
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| Eastern Jin | |||||||
| Southern and Northern Dynasties 420–589 |
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| Sui dynasty 581–618 | |||||||
| Tang dynasty 618–907 | |||||||
| (Second Zhou 690–705) | |||||||
| 5 Dynasties and 10 Kingdoms 907–960 |
Liao dynasty 907–1125 |
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| Song dynasty 960–1279 |
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| Northern Song | W. Xia | ||||||
| Southern Song | Jin | ||||||
| Yuan dynasty 1271–1368 | |||||||
| Ming dynasty 1368–1644 | |||||||
| Qing dynasty 1644–1911 | |||||||
| MODERN | |||||||
| Republic of China 1912–1949 | |||||||
| People's Republic of China 1949–present |
Republic of China on Taiwan 1949–present |
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Main articles: History of China and Timeline of Chinese history
Prehistory
Main article: Chinese prehistory
According to Chinese tradition, the first imperial dynasty was the Xia, which emerged around 2070 BCE.[36] However, the dynasty was considered mythical by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou, Henan in 1959.[37] It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia Dynasty or of another culture from the same period.[38]
Early dynastic rule
Further information: Dynasties in Chinese history
The first Chinese dynasty that left historical records, the loosely feudal Shang,[39] settled along the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BCE.[40] The oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty represents the oldest form of Chinese writing yet found,[41] and is a direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters.[42] The Shang were conquered by the Zhou,
who ruled between the 12th and 5th centuries BCE, until its centralized
authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Many independent states
eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou state and continually waged
war with each other in the 300-year Spring and Autumn Period, only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king. By the time of the Warring States period
of the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were seven powerful sovereign
states in what is now China, each with its own king, ministry and army.Imperial China
The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 BCE and 220 CE, and created a lasting Han cultural identity among its populace that has endured to the present day.[43][44] The Han Dynasty expanded the empire's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia and Central Asia, and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world.[45] The Han Dynasty adopted Confucianism, a philosophy developed in the Spring and Autumn period, as its official state ideology. Despite the Han's official abandonment of Legalism, the official ideology of the Qin, Legalist institutions and policies remained and formed the basis of the Han government.[46]
Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese technology and culture entered a golden age.[50] The An Shi Rebellion in the 8th century devastated the country and weakened the dynasty.[51] The Song Dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy.[52] Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people, mostly due to the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song Dynasty also saw a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as landscape art and portrait painting were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity,[53] and social elites gathered to view art, share their own and trade precious artworks. The Song Dynasty saw a revival of Confucianism, in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang.[54]
In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, a minor Ming official who led the peasant revolt. The last Ming Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing Dynasty then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and overthrew Li's short-lived Shun Dynasty, and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing Dynasty.
End of dynastic rule
The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which millions of people died. In the 1850s and 1860s, the failed Taiping Rebellion ravaged southern China. Other major rebellions included the Punti–Hakka Clan Wars (1855–67), the Nien Rebellion (1851–68), the Miao Rebellion (1854–73), the Panthay Rebellion (1856–73) and the Dungan revolt (1862–77).
In the 19th century, the great Chinese Diaspora began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879, in which between 9 and 13 million people died.[60] In 1898, the Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan to establish a modern constitutional monarchy, but he was overthrown by the Empress Dowager Cixi in a coup d'état. The ill-fated anti-Western Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 further weakened the Qing Dynasty. The Xinhai Revolution of 1911–12 brought an end to the Qing Dynasty and established the Republic of China.
Republic of China (1912–1949)
Main articles: Republic of China (1912–1949) and History of the Republic of China
After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.[63][64] In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings, known collectively as the Northern Expedition.[65][66] The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to Nanjing and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's San-min program for transforming China into a modern democratic state.[67][68] The political division in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the Communists, against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the Chinese Civil War. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the Communists retreated in the Long March, until Japanese aggression and the 1936 Xi'an Incident forced Chiang to confront Imperial Japan.[69]
The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), a theater of World War II, forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the Communists. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.[70] An estimated 200,000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.[71] Japan surrendered unconditionally to China in 1945. Taiwan, including the Pescadores, was put under the administrative control of the Republic of China, which immediately claimed sovereignty. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China.[72]
People's Republic of China (1949–present)
Main article: History of the People's Republic of China
Mao encouraged population growth, and under his leadership the Chinese population almost doubled from around 550 million to over 900 million.[77] However, Mao's Great Leap Forward, a large-scale economic and social reform project, resulted in an estimated 45 million deaths between 1958 and 1961, mostly from starvation.[78] Between 1 and 2 million landlords were executed as "counterrevolutionaries."[79] In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, sparking a period of political recrimination and social upheaval which lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council.[80]
After Mao's death in 1976 and the arrest of the faction known as the Gang of Four, who were blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping took power and led the country to significant economic reforms. The Communist Party subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the communes were disbanded in favor of private land leases. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment.[81] China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982. In 1989, the violent suppression of student protests in Tiananmen Square brought condemnation and sanctions against the Chinese government from various countries.[82]
Preparations for a decadal Communist Party leadership change in 2012 were marked by factional disputes and political scandals.[90] During China's 18th National Communist Party Congress in November 2012, Hu Jintao was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party by Xi Jinping.[91][92] Under Xi, the Chinese government began large-scale efforts to reform its economy,[93][94] which has suffered from structural instabilities and slowing growth.[95][96][97][98] Xi-Li Administration also announced major reforms to the one-child policy and prison system.[99]
Geography
Main article: Geography of China
A composite satellite image showing the topography of China
Longsheng Rice Terrace in Guangxi
The Li River in Guangxi
Political geography
The People's Republic of China is the second-largest country in the world by land area[100] after Russia, and is either the third- or fourth-largest by total area, after Russia, Canada and, depending on the definition of total area, the United States.[k] China's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km2 (3,700,000 sq mi).[101] Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) according to the Encyclopædia Britannica,[102] 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the UN Demographic Yearbook,[6] to 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the CIA World Factbook.[8]China has the longest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) from the mouth of the Yalu River to the Gulf of Tonkin.[8] China borders 14 nations, more than any other country except Russia, which also borders 14.[103] China extends across much of East Asia, bordering Vietnam, Laos, and Burma in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan[l] in South Asia; Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; and Russia, Mongolia, and North Korea in Inner Asia and Northeast Asia. Additionally, China shares maritime boundaries with South Korea, Japan, Vietnam, the Philippines and Taiwan.
Landscape and climate
The South China Sea coast at Hainan
Jiuzhaigou Valley in Sichuan
China's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons, which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist.[106] The climate in China differs from region to region because of the country's highly complex topography.
A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert.[107][108] Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Korea and Japan. According to China's environmental watchdog, Sepa, China is losing a million acres (4,000 km²) per year to desertification.[109] Water quality, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people.[110]
Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of China
China is home to at least 551 species of mammals (the third-highest such number in the world),[115] 1,221 species of birds (eighth),[116] 424 species of reptiles (seventh)[117] and 333 species of amphibians (seventh).[118] China is the most biodiverse country in each category outside of the tropics. Wildlife in China share habitat with and bear acute pressure from the world's largest population of homo sapiens. At least 840 animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction in China, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and ingredients for traditional Chinese medicine.[119] Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and as of 2005, the country has over 2,349 nature reserves, covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area.[120]
China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants,[121] and is home to a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as moose and Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species.[122] The understorey of moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo. In higher montane stands of juniper and yew, the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons. Subtropical forests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support as many as 146,000 species of flora.[122] Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China.[122] China has over 10,000 recorded species of fungi,[123] and of them, nearly 6,000 are higher fungi.[124]
Environmental issues
Main article: Environmental issues in China
However, China is the world's leading investor in renewable energy commercialization, with $52 billion invested in 2011 alone;[134][135][136] it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects.[137][138] By 2009, over 17% of China's energy was derived from renewable sources – most notably hydroelectric power plants, of which China has a total installed capacity of 197 GW.[139] In 2011, the Chinese government announced plans to invest four trillion yuan (US$618.55 billion) in water infrastructure and desalination projects over a ten-year period, and to complete construction of a flood prevention and anti-drought system by 2020.[132][140] In 2013, China began a five-year, US$277-billion effort to reduce air pollution, particularly in the north of the country.[141]
Politics
Main article: Politics of the People's Republic of China
The People's Republic of China is one of the world's few remaining socialist states openly endorsing communism (see Ideology of the Communist Party of China). The Chinese government has been variously described as communist and socialist, but also as authoritarian and corporatist,[142] with heavy restrictions in many areas, most notably against free access to the Internet, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, the right to have children, free formation of social organizations and freedom of religion.[143] Its current political and economic system has been termed by its leaders as "socialism with Chinese characteristics" (which is Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances) and as the "socialist market economy" respectively.[144]Communist Party
The country is ruled by the Communist Party of China (CPC), whose power is enshrined in China's constitution.[145] The Chinese electoral system is hierarchical, whereby local People's Congresses are directly elected, and all higher levels of People's Congresses up to the National People's Congress (NPC) are indirectly elected by the People's Congress of the level immediately below.[146] The political system is decentralized, and provincial and sub-provincial leaders have a significant amount of autonomy.[147] There are other political parties in China, referred to in China as democratic parties, which participate in the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC).[148]
Government
The President of China is the titular head of state, serving as the ceremonial figurehead under National People's Congress.[n] The Premier of China is the head of government, presiding over the State Council composed of four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions. The incumbent President is Xi Jinping, who is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's paramount leader.[91] The incumbent Premier is Li Keqiang, who is also a senior member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee, China's de facto top decision-making body.[153]There have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town levels.[154][155] However, the Party retains effective control over government appointments: in the absence of meaningful opposition, the CPC wins by default most of the time. Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption.[156][157] Nonetheless, the level of public support for the government and its management of the nation is high, with 80–95% of Chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the central government, according to a 2011 survey.[158]
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Administrative divisions of China, Districts of Hong Kong and Municipalities of Macau
The People's Republic of China has administrative control over 22 provinces and considers Taiwan to be its 23rd province, although Taiwan is currently and independently governed by the Republic of China, which disputes the PRC's claim.[159] China also has five subdivisions officially termed autonomous regions, each with a designated minority group; four municipalities; and two Special Administrative Regions
(SARs), which enjoy a degree of political autonomy. These 22 provinces,
five autonomous regions, and four municipalities can be collectively
referred to as "mainland China", a term which usually excludes the SARs of Hong Kong and Macau. None of these divisions are recognized by the ROC government, which claims the entirety of the PRC's territory.|
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Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of China
Under its interpretation of the One-China policy, Beijing has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties with the government of the Republic of China. Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,[164] especially in the matter of armament sales.[165] Political meetings between foreign government officials and the 14th Dalai Lama are also opposed by China, as the latter considers Tibet to be formally part of China.[166]
Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.[167] This policy may have led China to support states that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations, such as Zimbabwe, North Korea and Iran.[168] China has a close economic and military relationship with Russia,[169] and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.[170][171][172]
Trade relations
In recent decades, China has played an increasing role in calling for free trade areas and security pacts amongst its Asia-Pacific neighbors. In 2004, it proposed an entirely new East Asia Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues.[173] The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. China is also a founding member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), along with Russia and the Central Asian republics. China became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) on 11 December 2001.In 2000, the United States Congress approved "permanent normal trade relations" (PNTR) with China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries.[174] China has a significant trade surplus with the United States, its most important export market.[175] In the early 2010s, US politicians argued that the Chinese yuan was significantly undervalued, giving China an unfair trade advantage.[176][177][178] In recent decades, China has followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation;[179][180][181] in 2012, Sino-African trade totalled over US$160 billion.[182] China has furthermore strengthened its ties with major South American economies, becoming the largest trading partner of Brazil and building strategic links with Argentina.[183][184]
Territorial disputes
Emerging superpower status
China is regularly hailed as a potential new superpower, with certain commentators citing its rapid economic progress, growing military might, very large population, and increasing international influence as signs that it will play a prominent global role in the 21st century.[21][187] Others, however, warn that economic bubbles and demographic imbalances could slow or even halt China's growth as the century progresses.[188][189] Some authors also question the definition of "superpower", arguing that China's large economy alone would not qualify it as a superpower, and noting that it lacks the military and cultural influence of the United States.[190]Sociopolitical issues and reform
See also: Human rights in China, Hukou system, Social welfare in China, Elections in the People's Republic of China, Censorship in China and Feminism in China
Rural migrants to China's cities often find themselves treated as second-class citizens by the hukou household registration system, which controls access to state benefits.[198][199] Property rights are often poorly protected,[198] and taxation disproportionately affects poorer citizens.[199] However, a number of rural taxes have been reduced or abolished since the early 2000s, and additional social services provided to rural dwellers.[200][201]
A number of foreign governments, foreign press agencies and NGOs also routinely criticize China's human rights record, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced abortions,[202] forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights,[143][203][204] and excessive use of the death penalty.[205][206] The government has suppressed demonstrations by organizations that it considers a potential threat to "social stability", as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The Chinese state is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet and Xinjiang, including violent police crackdowns and religious suppression.[207][208]
The Chinese government has responded to foreign criticism by arguing that the notion of human rights should take into account a country's present level of economic development and the "people's rights to subsistence and development".[209] It emphasizes the rise in the Chinese standard of living, literacy rate and average life expectancy since the 1970s, as well as improvements in workplace safety and efforts to combat natural disasters such as the perennial Yangtze River floods.[209][210][211] Furthermore, some Chinese politicians have spoken out in support of democratisation, although others remain more conservative.[212] Some major reform efforts have been conducted; for an instance in November 2013, the government announced its plans to the abolish the much-criticized re-education through labor program.[99] Although during the 2000s and early 2010s, the Chinese government was increasingly tolerant of NGOs that offer practical, efficient solutions to social problems, such "third sector" activity remained heavily regulated.[213]
Military
Main article: People's Liberation Army
As a recognized nuclear weapons state, China is considered both a major regional military power and a potential military superpower.[217] According to a 2013 report by the US Department of Defense, China fields between 50 and 75 nuclear ICBMs, along with a number of SRBMs.[19] However, compared with the other four UN Security Council Permanent Members, China has a relatively limited power projection capabilities.[218] To offset this, it has developed numerous power projection assets – its first aircraft carrier entered service in 2012,[219][220][221][222] and it maintains a substantial fleet of submarines, including several nuclear-powered attack and ballistic missile submarines.[223] China has furthermore established a network of foreign military relationships along critical sea lanes.[224]
Economy
Main articles: Economy of China, Agriculture in China and List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP
Economic history and growth
Main article: Economic history of China (1949–present)
From its founding in 1949 until late 1978, the People's Republic of China was a Soviet-style centrally planned economy. Following Mao's death in 1976 and the consequent end of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping and the new Chinese leadership began to reform the economy and move towards a more market-oriented mixed economy under one-party rule. Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized, while foreign trade became a major new focus, leading to the creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Inefficient state-owned enterprises
(SOEs) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright,
resulting in massive job losses. Modern-day China is mainly
characterized as having a market economy based on private property
ownership,[236] and is one of the leading examples of state capitalism.[237][238] The state still dominates in strategic "pillar" sectors such as energy production and heavy industries, but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30 million private businesses recorded in 2008.[239][240][241][242]
In the online realm, China's e-commerce industry has grown more slowly than the EU and the US, with a significant period of development occurring from around 2009 onwards. According to Credit Suisse, the total value of online transactions in China grew from an insignificant size in 2008 to around RMB 4 trillion (US$660 billion) in 2012. Alipay has the biggest market share in China with 300 million users and control of just under half of China's online payment market in February 2014, while Tenpay's share is around 20 percent, and China UnionPay's share is slightly greater than 10 percent.[254]
China in the global economy
China is a member of the WTO and is the world's largest trading power, with a total international trade value of US$3.87 trillion in 2012.[18] Its foreign exchange reserves reached US$2.85 trillion by the end of 2010, an increase of 18.7% over the previous year, making its reserves by far the world's largest.[255][256] As of 2009, China owns an estimated $1.6 trillion of US securities.[257] China, holding over US$1.16 trillion in US Treasury bonds,[258] is the largest foreign holder of US public debt.[259][260] In 2012, China was the world's largest recipient of inward foreign direct investment (FDI), attracting $253 billion.[261] China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $62.4 billion in 2012,[261] and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies.[262] China's undervalued exchange rate has caused friction with other major economies,[177][263][264] and it has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods.[265][266] |
| A graph comparing the 2012 nominal GDPs of major economies in US$ billions, according to IMF data[267] |
Class and income equality
See also: Income inequality in China
China's middle-class population (if defined as those with annual
income of between US$10,000 and US$60,000) had reached more than
300 million by 2012.[271] According to the Hurun Report,
the number of US dollar billionaires in China increased from 130 in
2009 to 251 in 2012, giving China the world's second-highest number of
billionaires.[272][273] China's domestic retail market was worth over 20 trillion yuan (US$3.2 trillion) in 2012[274] and is growing at over 12% annually as of 2013,[275] while the country's luxury goods market has expanded immensely, with 27.5% of the global share.[276] However, in recent years, China's rapid economic growth has contributed to severe consumer inflation,[277][278] leading to increased government regulation.[279] China has a high level of economic inequality,[280] which has increased in the past few decades.[281] In 2012, China's Gini coefficient was 0.474.[13]Internationalization of the renminbi
Main article: Internationalization of the renminbi
In November 2010, Russia began using the Chinese renminbi in its bilateral trade with China.[282] This was soon followed by Japan,[283] Australia,[284] Singapore,[285] and the United Kingdom.[286] As a result of the rapid internationalization of the renminbi, it became the eighth-most-traded currency in the world in 2013.[287]Science and technology
Main articles: Science and technology in China and Chinese space program
 |
| History of science and technology in China |
|---|
| By era |
Historical
China was a world leader in science and technology until the Ming Dynasty. Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions), later became widespread in Asia and Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers.[288][289] However, by the 17th century, the Western world had surpassed China in scientific and technological development.[290] The causes of this Great Divergence continue to be debated.[291]After repeated military defeats by Western nations in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning.[292] After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology was established as one of the Four Modernizations,[293] and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.[294]
Modern era
Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, China has made significant investments in scientific research,[295] spending over US$100 billion on scientific research and development in 2011 alone.[296] Science and technology are seen as vital for achieving economic and political goals, and are held as a source of national pride to a degree sometimes described as "techno-nationalism".[297] While Chinese-born scientists have won the Nobel Prize in Physics four times and the Nobel Prize in Chemistry once, these scientists had all earned their doctorates and conducted their award-winning research in the West.[o]
The Chinese space program is one of the world's most active, and is a major source of national pride.[310][311] In 1970, China launched its first satellite, Dong Fang Hong I. In 2003, China became the third country to independently send humans into space, with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5; as of June 2013, ten Chinese nationals have journeyed into space. In 2011, China's first space station module, Tiangong-1, was launched, marking the first step in a project to assemble a large manned station by the early 2020s.[312]
Infrastructure
Communications
Main article: Telecommunications in China
China currently has the largest number of active cellphones of any country in the world, with over 1 billion users by February 2012.[313] It also has the world's largest number of internet and broadband users,[314] with over 591 million internet users as of 2013, equivalent to around 44% of its population.[315] A 2013 report found that the national average internet connection speed is 3.14 MB/s.[316] As of July 2013, China accounts for 24% of the world's internet-connected devices.[317]China Telecom and China Unicom, the world's two largest broadband providers, accounted for 20% of global broadband subscribers. China Telecom alone serves more than 50 million broadband subscribers, while China Unicom serves more than 40 million.[318] Several Chinese telecommunications companies, most notably Huawei and ZTE, have been accused of spying for the Chinese military.[319]
Transport
Main article: Transport in China
Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of highways,
known as the National Trunk Highway System (NTHS). In 2011 China's
highways had reached a total length of 85,000 km (53,000 mi), making it
the longest highway system in the world.[320]
Private car ownership is growing rapidly in China, which surpassed the
United States as the world's largest automobile market in 2009, with
total car sales of over 13.6 million.[321] Analysts predict that annual car sales in China may rise as high as 40 million by 2020.[322] A side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents,[323] with poorly enforced traffic laws cited as a possible cause—in 2011 alone, around 62,000 Chinese died in road accidents.[324]
In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the
increasing prevalence of automobiles – as of 2012, there are
approximately 470 million bicycles in China.[325]
China's railways, owned by the state,[326] are the busiest in the world, handling a quarter of the world's cargo and passenger travel.[327] Due to huge demand, the system is regularly subject to overcrowding, particularly during holiday seasons, such as Chunyun during the Chinese New Year.[327] The Chinese rail network carried an estimated 1.68 billion total passengers in 2010 alone.[328]
As of 2013, more than two-thirds of airports under construction worldwide are in China,[334] and Boeing expects that China's fleet of active commercial aircraft in China will grow from 1,910 to 2011 to 5,980 in 2031.[334] However, 80% of China's airspace remains restricted for military use, and Chinese airlines made up eight of the 10 worst-performing Asian airlines in terms of delays.[335]
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of China
Although a middle-income country by Western standards, China's rapid growth has pulled hundreds of millions of its people out of poverty since 1978. Today, about 10% of the Chinese population lives below the poverty line of US$1 per day, down from 64% in 1978. Urban unemployment in China reportedly declined to 4% by the end of 2007.[338] At present, urban unemployment rate of China is about 4.1%.[339][340]
With a population of over 1.3 billion and dwindling natural resources, the government of China is very concerned about its population growth rate and has attempted since 1979, with mixed results,[341] to implement a strict family planning policy, known as the "one-child policy." Before 2013, this policy sought to restrict families to one child each, with exceptions for ethnic minorities and a degree of flexibility in rural areas. A major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child.[342] China's family planning minister indicated in 2008 that the one-child policy would be maintained until at least 2020.[343] The one-child policy is resisted, particularly in rural areas, primarily because of the need for agricultural labour and a traditional preference for boys. Families who breach the policy often lie during the census.[344] Data from the 2010 census implies that the total fertility rate may now be around 1.4.[345]
Ethnic groups
Main articles: List of ethnic groups in China, Ethnic minorities in China and Ethnic groups in Chinese history
China officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, the largest of which are the Han Chinese, who constitute about 91.51% of the total population.[10] The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group[350] – outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial-level division except Tibet and Xinjiang.[351] Ethnic minorities account for about 8.49% of the population of China, according to the 2010 census.[10]
Compared with the 2000 population census, the Han population increased
by 66,537,177 persons, or 5.74%, while the population of the 55 national
minorities combined increased by 7,362,627 persons, or 6.92%.[10]
The 2010 census recorded a total of 593,832 foreign citizens living in
China. The largest such groups were from South Korea (120,750), the
United States (71,493) and Japan (66,159).[352]Languages
Main articles: Languages of China and List of endangered languages in China
Classical Chinese was the written standard in China for thousands of years and allowed for written communication between speakers of various unintelligible languages and dialects in China. Written vernacular Chinese, or baihua, is the written standard, based on the Mandarin dialect and first popularized in Ming Dynasty novels. It was adopted, with significant modifications, during the early 20th century as the national standard. Classical Chinese is still part of the high school curriculum, and is thus intelligible to some degree to many Chinese. Since their promulgation by the government in 1956, Simplified Chinese characters have become the official standardized written script used to write the Chinese language within mainland China, supplanting the use of the earlier Traditional Chinese characters.
Urbanization
See also: List of cities in China, List of cities in China by population and Metropolitan regions of China
China has urbanized significantly in the past few decades. The
percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from
20% in 1990 to 46% in 2007.[356] It is estimated that China's urban population will reach one billion by 2030.[356] As of 2012, there are more than 262 million migrant workers in China.[357] Most of them are from rural areas and seek work in the cities.China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million,[358] including the seven megacities (cities with a population of over 10 million) of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou, Tianjin, Shenzhen, and Wuhan.[359][360][361] By 2025, it is estimated that the country will be home to 221 cities with over a million inhabitants.[356] The figures in the table below are from the 2010 census,[3] and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban and rural populations). The large "floating populations" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;[362] the figures below include only long-term residents. --203.12.139.164 (talk) 03:47, 5 May 2014 (UTC)
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Largest cities or towns of China Sixth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China (2010) |
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| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||
 Beijing  Shanghai |
1 | Beijing | Beijing | 18,827,000 | 11 | Nanjing | Jiangsu | 6,852,984 |  Chongqing  Tianjin |
| 2 | Shanghai | Shanghai | 22,315,426 | 12 | Shenyang | Liaoning | 5,743,718 | ||
| 3 | Chongqing | Chongqing | 15,294,255 | 13 | Hangzhou | Zhejiang | 5,695,313 | ||
| 4 | Tianjin | Tianjin | 11,090,314 | 14 | Harbin | Heilongjiang | 4,517,549 | ||
| 5 | Guangzhou | Guangdong | 11,070,654 | 15 | Suzhou | Jiangsu | 4,074,000 | ||
| 6 | Shenzhen | Guangdong | 10,357,938 | 16 | Jinan | Shandong | 3,922,180 | ||
| 7 | Wuhan | Hubei | 10,120,000 | 17 | Xi'an | Shaanxi | 3,890,098 | ||
| 8 | Dongguan | Guangdong | 8,220,937 | 18 | Wuxi | Jiangsu | 3,542,319 | ||
| 9 | Chengdu | Sichuan | 7,123,697 | 19 | Hefei | Anhui | 3,352,076 | ||
| 10 | Hong Kong | Hong Kong | 7,055,071 | 20 | Changchun | Jilin | 3,341,700 | ||
Education
Main articles: Education in the People's Republic of China and List of universities in China
In February 2006, the government pledged to provide completely free nine-year education, including textbooks and fees.[368] Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$250 billion in 2011.[369] However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totaled ¥20,023, while in Guizhou, one of the poorest provinces in China, only totaled ¥3,204.[370] Free compulsory education in China consists of primary school and junior secondary school between the ages of 6 and 15. In 2011, around 81.4% of Chinese have received secondary education.[371] By 2007, there were 396,567 primary schools, 94,116 secondary schools, and 2,236 higher education institutions in China.[372]
As of 2010, 94% of the population over age 15 are literate,[373] compared to only 20% in 1950.[374] In 2009, Chinese students from Shanghai achieved the world's best results in mathematics, science and literacy, as tested by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a worldwide evaluation of 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance.[375]
Health
Main article: Health in China
See also: Pharmaceutical industry in China
Life expectancy at birth in China is 75 years,[380] and the infant mortality rate is 12 per thousand.[381] Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.[p] Rates of stunting, a condition caused by malnutrition, have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010.[384] Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by widespread air pollution,[385] hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers,[386] and an increase in obesity among urban youths.[387][388] China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in recent years, such as the 2003 outbreak of SARS, although this has since been largely contained.[389] In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China.[390]
Religion
Main article: Religion in China
Over the millennia, the Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. China's San Jiao ("three doctrines" or "three religions") include Confucianism,[q] Buddhism, and Taoism, and historically have had a significant impact in shaping Chinese culture.[395][396] Elements of these three belief systems are often incorporated into popular or folk religious traditions.[397]A 2008 survey of rural villagers in six provinces found that
more than two-thirds of self-proclaimed religious believers (or 31.09% of all sample villagers) do not or cannot clearly identify their faith ... These people believe that there are supernatural powers that dominate or strongly influence the fate of human beings, and they think their fates can be changed through offering sacrifices to gods or ancestors. These beliefs and practices are often deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultures and customs of local communities.[393]A 2007 survey by the Horizon Research Consultancy Group found that individuals who self-identify as Buddhists made up 11–16% of China's adult population, while Christians comprised around 3–4%, and Muslims comprised approximately 1%.[398] Some of the ethnic minorities of China practice unique ethnic religions – Dongbaism is the traditional religion of the Nakhi people, Moism that of the Zhuang people, and Ruism that of the Qiang people. The traditional indigenous religion of Tibet is Bön, while most Tibetans follow Tibetan Buddhism, a form of Vajrayana.[399]
Culture
Main articles: Chinese culture and Culture of the People's Republic of China
A traditional Peking opera being performed
Beijing's Forbidden City, showing its classical Chinese architectural style
The first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial order, but were influenced by the May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals. They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and the Confucian system of education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the state. Some observers see the period following the establishment of the PRC in 1949 as a continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others claim that the Communist Party's rule has damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, where many aspects of traditional culture were destroyed, having been denounced as "regressive and harmful" or "vestiges of feudalism". Many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, art, literature, and performing arts like Peking opera,[402] were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time. Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted; only 34 foreign films a year are allowed to be shown in Chinese cinemas.[403]
Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival,[404][405] and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide.[406] China is now the third-most-visited country in the world,[407] with 55.7 million inbound international visitors in 2010.[408] It also experiences an enormous volume of domestic tourism; an estimated 740 million Chinese holidaymakers travelled within the country in October 2012 alone.[409]
Cuisine
Main article: Chinese cuisine
Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history. The dynastic emperors
of ancient China were known to have many dining chambers in their
palaces, with each chamber divided into several departments, each
responsible for a specific type of dish.[410]
China's staple food is rice. Pork is the most popular meat in China,
accounting for about three-fourths of the country's total meat
consumption.[411] Spices are central to Chinese cuisine. Numerous foreign offshoots of Chinese food, such as Hong Kong cuisine and American Chinese food, have emerged in the various nations that play host to the Chinese diaspora.Sports
Main articles: Sport in the People's Republic of China and China at the Olympics
Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such as qigong and t'ai chi ch'uan widely practiced,[414] and commercial gyms and fitness clubs gaining popularity in the country.[415] Young people in China are also enjoy soccer and basketball, especially in urban centers with limited space and grass areas. The American National Basketball Association has a huge following among the Chinese youth, with ethnic or native Chinese players such as Yao Ming and Jeremy Lin held in high esteem.[416] In addition, China is home to a huge number of cyclists, with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012.[325] Many more traditional sports, such as dragon boat racing, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are also popular.[417]
China has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC since 1952. China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, where its athletes received 51 gold medals – the highest number of gold medals of any participating nation that year.[418] China also won the most medals of any nation at the 2012 Summer Paralympics, with 231 overall, including 95 gold medals.[419][420] In 2011, Shenzhen in Guandgong, China hosted the 2011 Summer Universiade. China hosted the 2013 East Asian Games in Tianjin and will host the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics in Nanjing.
People's Republic of China
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Anthem:
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Area controlled by the People's Republic of China shown in dark green; claimed but uncontrolled regions shown in light green.
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| Capital | Beijing[a] 39°55′N 116°23′E |
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| Largest city | Shanghai[1] | |||||
| Official languages | Standard Chinese[2][b] | |||||
| Recognised regional languages | ||||||
| Official written language | Vernacular Chinese | |||||
| Official script | Simplified Chinese[2] | |||||
| Ethnic groups | ||||||
| Demonym | Chinese | |||||
| Government | Single-party people's republic[4] | |||||
| - | Paramount leader[d] | Xi Jinping | ||||
| - | Premier | Li Keqiang | ||||
| - | Congress Chairman | Zhang Dejiang | ||||
| - | Conference Chairman | Yu Zhengsheng | ||||
| Legislature | National People's Congress | |||||
| Formation | ||||||
| - | Unification of China under the Qin Dynasty | 221 BCE | ||||
| - | Republic established | 1 January 1912 | ||||
| - | People's Republic proclaimed | 1 October 1949 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 9,596,961 km2[e] (3rd/4th) 3,705,407 sq mi |
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| - | Water (%) | 0.28%[f] | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2012 estimate | 1,350,695,000[9] (1st) | ||||
| - | 2010 census | 1,339,724,852[10] (1st) | ||||
| - | Density | 2011 estimate:[11] 144/km2 (83rd) 373/sq mi |
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| GDP (PPP) | 2013 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $13.395 trillion[12] (2nd) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $9,844[12] (92nd) | ||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2013 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $9.182 trillion[12] (2nd) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $6,747[12] (82th) | ||||
| Gini (2012) | 47.4[13] high |
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| HDI (2012) |  0.699[14]medium · 101st |
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| Currency | Renminbi (yuan)(¥)[g] (CNY) |
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| Time zone | China Standard Time (UTC+8) | |||||
| Date format | ||||||
| Drives on the | right[h] | |||||
| Calling code | +86 | |||||
| ISO 3166 code | CN | |||||
| Internet TLD | ||||||
i/ˈtʃaɪnə/; simplified Chinese: 中国; traditional Chinese: 中國; pinyin: 'Zhōngguó'), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a sovereign state located in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population of over 1.35 billion. The PRC is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party, with its seat of government in the capital city of Beijing.[15] It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four direct-controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). The PRC also claims Taiwan – which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity – as its 23rd province, a claim which is controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan.[16]Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometers, China is the world's second-largest country by land area,[17] and either the third or fourth-largest by total area, depending on the method of measurement.[i] China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes and the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts in the arid north to subtropical forests in the wetter south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometres (9,000 mi) long, and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East and South China Seas.
The history of China goes back to the ancient civilization – one of the world's earliest – that flourished in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, China's political system was based on hereditary monarchies, known as dynasties, beginning with the semi-mythological Xia of the Yellow River basin (c. 2000 BCE). Since 221 BCE, when the Qin Dynasty first conquered several states to form a Chinese empire, the country has expanded, fractured and been reformed numerous times. The Republic of China (ROC) overthrew the last dynasty in 1911, and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949. After the defeat of the Empire of Japan in World War II, the Communist Party defeated the nationalist Kuomintang in mainland China and established the People's Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, while the Kuomintang relocated the ROC government to its present capital of Taipei.
Since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978, China has become one of the world's fastest-growing major economies. As of 2013, it is the world's second-largest economy by both nominal total GDP and purchasing power parity (PPP), and is also the world's largest exporter and importer of goods.[18] China is a recognized nuclear weapons state and has the world's largest standing army, with the second-largest defense budget.[19] The PRC has been a United Nations member since 1971, when it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the BCIM and the G-20. China is a regional power within Asia and has been characterized as a potential superpower by a number of commentators.[20][21]
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